linkage to psychological concepts.
If differences between Australian, American and European forms of Buddhism
can be identi® ed, this may provide information about the different
cultural factors affecting the development of Buddhism in these countries. In his
review of Tweed’s research on the early adoption of Buddhist ideas in America,
Baumann notes that ªWhile examining public and personal attitudes to a
transplanted, `exotic’ religion, Tweed succeeds in elucidating the prevalent
beliefs and values of the dominant cultureº (Baumann, 1995b). In his own
research Baumann examines rationalist conceptions of Buddhism in Germany
and argues that Germany has interpreted and presented Buddhism in a way that
conforms with German values; he concludes that the Buddhism that has developed
in Germany says more about German cultural values and attitudes than
about Buddhism itself (Baumann, 1997a: 287).
Buddhism in Australia 39
However, most of the Buddhist lineages found in Australia are also represented
in America and Europe; indeed many Australian lineages have their
origins or current headquarters in other Western countries. It therefore seems
likely that the majority of the characteristics of American and European Buddhism
would be shared by Australian Buddhism. While these characteristics
have not been documented in studies of Australian Buddhism, some Australian
examples can be found.
Evidence that Australian Buddhism is following the Western trend of emphasising
lay practice includes the growth of groups af® liated with lineages that are
no longer monastic, such as the Sanbo Kyodan and the Diamond Sangha.
However, there are also many organisations that support large monastic communities.
Examples include the Bodhinyana Monastery, which includes a training
centre for Theravada monastics in the Thai Forest tradition (Adam, 1995:
105); the Chenrezig Institute for Wisdom Culture, a residential centre of the
FPMT; and the Linh Son Temple, a nunnery that is a branch of the Linh Son
World Buddhist Association. In order to determine whether the emphasis in
Australian Buddhism is on lay or monastic practice it would be necessary to
have statistics which provide details about the number of lay and monastic
practitioners as well as information on the activities of the monastic groups, to
examine whether lay practice is also promoted. Until such information is
available, it cannot be determined whether emphasis on lay practice is a
characteristic of Buddhism in Australia.
Similarly, an emphasis on equality for women is not yet apparent in Australian
Buddhist groups, despite some historical and contemporary examples. As
Adam and Hughes observe, the role of women varies in Buddhist traditions and
countries, and this is re¯ ected in the role of women in Australian Buddhist
groups (Adam & Hughes, 1996: 35). A cursory glance through the Internet sites
of Australian groups reveals that many teachers, particularly monastics, are
male, yet some groups do have female teachers (either lay or monastic)Ð for
example, Ms Subhana Barzaghi Roshi is the main teacher of both the Sydney Zen
Centre and the Kuan Yin Zen Centre (both af® liates of the Diamond Sangha) and
an American nun, Kwang Myong Sunim, leads the Dae Kwang Sa Zen Society
(part of the Kwan Um school of Korean Chogye Buddhism). Other examples of
increasing equality for women include the Buddhist Society of Western Australia’s
recent acquisition of land for a monastery for nuns, which is to complement
the existing monastery for monks, Bodhinyana (Buddhist Society of
Western Australia, 1998).
The application of democratic principles within Australian Buddhism is
demonstrated by the existence of elected councils. However, in most organisations,
these bodies usually concentrate on the administration of the organisation,
leaving the spiritual side (admittedly a dif® cult distinction) in the hands of
teachers who may or may not have been chosen by the congregation. My
research on Diamond Sangha Zen Buddhist groups in Australia has revealed
that although there are some community decision-making processes on spiritual
matters, most decisions are still made by teachers and/or senior students.
Some emphasis on social engagement is evident in Australian Buddhist
groups, as a number of organisations focus on provision of community services.
Bucknell notes that there are two main types of services provided by these
organisations: provision of hospice care services and promotion of development
40 M. Spuler
projects in overseas countries (Bucknell, forthcoming). Examples include the
Karuna Hospice Service, a Buddhist-based, home-care nursing service for individuals
who have a diagnosed life-threatening illness, the Amitayus Hospice
Service, a similar home-based palliative care and support service which operates
ª with the values and principles of Buddhist teachings as our guiding lightº