village of Kamakura. He brought the country under control. Among other things, he set up a system of land stewards who collected tax from all lands, even the ones which had traditionally had tax exempt status.

 

The shogun never rebelled against the imperial government. He was officially appointed by the emperor. The imperial government retained many powers and administrative functions, but it was not as powerful as it had been before.

 

During the chaos caused by the wars and battles and political unrest of the late twelfth century, the welfare of the country was even further decreased by a series of natural disasters. One author, Kamo no Chomei, described a fire in 1177 that burned a large portion of the capital city, a whirlwind in 1180, famines in 1134 and 1181-1182, and an earthquake in 1185. Of these, the most serious was certainly the famine of 1181-1182. There were starving beggars in the roads. Many died in the streets, and were left there to rot. Tens of thousands of people died.

 

Between the constantly rioting priests, the wars, and the natural disasters, the theory that this was the era of mappo was given enormous credence. Most people agreed that mappo had certainly arrived. The aristocracy had already believed in that the age of mappo had come, but this belief become much more significant to their lives. Before they had had romantic, aesthetic notions about life being as brief as the beauty of a cherry blossom. Now the aristocracy's dominant role in the country had been stripped from them, and no one was foolish enough to think that they were likely to get it back. The very real affects of impermanence had been brought home to them. Their mood changed from one of enjoyment of fleeting pleasures while sorrowing that the pleasures were fleeting to a more serious tone of despair and gloom.

 

Some of the aristocracy renewed their commitment to culture and the fine arts. The next century was a time of flourishing literature as displaced aristocrats focused their energies on poetry. Other aristocrats turned their energies towards Buddhism.

 

Innovations in Japanese Buddhism

 

The aristocracy was not the only group which was shaken by the events of the late twelfth century. Many Buddhist clergy were trying to figure out the appropriate way to be a Buddhist in the time of mappo when both practice and realization were supposedly impossible. It was a difficult problem. Also, with the decline of the aristocracy, the primary supporters of Buddhism were no longer a powerful force in the world. New Buddhist movements were more likely to succeed if they appealed to other audiences. Two new Buddhist sects began in Japan in the late twelfth century, one oriented towards the common people, and the other oriented towards the samurai. In addition, the old sects instituted some reforms.

 

Pure Land Buddhism

 

The most important development in Buddhism in the twelfth century was probably the Pure Land movement started by Honen. The bases of the Pure Land movement were power of Amida Buddha, the desirability of going to Amida's realm or Pure Land after death, and the efficacy of reciting the nembutsu (or Amida's name). Different sects combine and interpret these elements differently, but each of them are a part of all Pure Land Buddhism.

 

Pure Land devotion was already present in Japan. It was one of the many practices known to the Nara sects. More importantly, it was one of the doctrines which formed the basis of Tendai. Concentrating on the Pure Land was an important meditative technique in Tendai practice. The nembutsu was also incorporated into Shingon thought, although it was regarded as being a technique to be used by monks of inferior ability who nonetheless were striving for salvation.

 

Several monks had taken Pure Land practice to the common people. The most notable of these was Kuya (903-972). Pure Land faith was generally mixed indiscriminately with other devotions and magical rituals. Most