A more subtle distinction is that in Buddhism the ability to disobey the commandments, in other words, free will, is not a gift bestowed by the "Creator" primarily to test one's faith and prove one's worthiness for admission to His Kingdom. Rather, Buddhism assumes that each individual is inherently free to ignore or follow the Five Precepts. While the power to choose emanates from within the individual, the choices made are not without consequences. According to what is sometimes referred to as the radiation theory, a morally unjust act radiates a negative Karma that harms not only the victim but ultimately the actor as well. 6 One's quest for Nirvana is thus served by living by the old adage "what goes around, comes around."

 

The idea of interrelatedness noted above is a pervasive theme in Buddhism. Another important manifestation of this theme is the theory of dependent origination. 7 This theory proclaims the interdependence of all life--past, present, and future--throughout the cosmos. In its broadest sense, this theory rejects as illusionary the separation of mankind from other living creatures that results from the claim that mankind alone has a soul. Buddhists believe that this illusionary separation of various life forms can lead to at least two pernicious results related to this study: religious tolerance of wanton destruction of the environment, and socio-political hierarchies based on one's claimed proximity to God(s).

 

In a slightly narrower sense, the theory of dependent origination argues that the existence of each of us is to a significant degree dependent on those who preceded us and those that share this world with us, and that in a like manner those yet to be born are dependent on all those that preceded them. A more forceful reminder of our gratitude to previous generations and of our responsibilities to future generations is hard to come by.

 

Also central to this study is the theory of dependent origination's explicit denial of the idea of substantiality, independent existence. In Buddhism the self as an existence apart from the existence of others is illusory. Simply put, no man is an island. Self-enlightenment, accordingly, begins with the rejection of the duality of self and other, and proceeds with an increased understanding of the state of nonself. At its core nonself is a state of mind devoid of egotism. After some final words on the essentials of Buddhism, we will have more to say on the concept of non self and its implications for this study.

 

The final component of Buddhism of which we need some understanding before proceeding is the recognition and acceptance of the impermanence of all things. A wealthy person can quickly sink into poverty. A healthy person can suddenly become seriously ill. The celebration of life can soon be followed by the ceremonies surrounding death. There is no sense of morbidity here, on the contrary, the acceptance of impermanence is an important key to happiness. It is much more than that, however. Additionally, we are reminded of the equality of all of us before the law of impermanence, and of the need to replace sympathy from afar with a compassionate desire to directly aid the suffering.

 

This inclination towards social activism supposedly touches every member of the Buddhist community, even those at the pinnacle of the process of self-enlightenment. It is widely held that, at the same moment that one attains Nirvana, one has also reached a level of egolessness that naturally redirects one to this world. "True compassion can be reached only by transcending Nirvana to return to and work in the midst of the suffering of the ever-changing world." 8 In this world, one seeks to aid others in overcoming the ignorance that is the first link of the chain of causation leading to sorrow. 9 Thus, in contrast to most other world religions, Buddhism emphasizes learning, not faith, and the quality of life in this world, not the next.

 

III. BUDDHISM AND THE INDIVIDUAL Especially for those of us raised in the West, the Buddhist conception of the nonself can be difficult to grasp. It is often mistakenly taken to mean the lack of a clear sense of self-identity or an unrestrained sacrificing of individual interests for the sake of one's immediate group or the state. If either were the case, then any talk of individual rights in the context of Buddhism would make little sense. Therefore, we need to further develop our understanding of the concept of nonself, especially as it relates to the acknowledgement of the existence of fundamental human rights. We will use a comparison of Buddhism with the other two of the "Three Treasures," Shintoism and Confucianism, to help us in this process.

 

In Shintoism, the Emperor is presented as a living god with ultimate moral and political authority in this realm. While the Emperor is not explicitly considered to be infallible, there is in Shintoism no basis upon which an individual may legitimately challenge the will of the Emperor. Thus, even challenges considered by the Emperor to have some merit must result in the punishment of the challenger. In the absence of any recognized moral or political right to protest, the protester must dutifully accept and sometimes even self-inflict the punishment decreed by the Emperor. The Emperor may, of course, suspend certain duties or grant specific privileges, but these remain totally dependent on the benevolence of the Emperor. At best, the relationship between the people and the Emperor is comparable to a benevolent father caring for his totally dependent children. At its worst, the children quietly endure their abusive parent. In neither case are the needs of the individual members of the family viewed as on the same plane as those of the patriarch. In both cases the people are subjects, and not right-bearing citizens.