Thus we find in Buddhism the origins of the state in a type of social contract; a partial separation of church and state, an expectation that the power of the state and its use of coercion will be limited, an acceptance of only rational and peaceful means of conflict resolution such as a modern legal system, and a call for the just treatment of the accused and the convicted.

 

V. BUDDHISM AND THE ECONOMY The attainment of Nirvana requires a great deal of mental clarity and concentration. An individual preoccupied with physical survival will find it difficult to display these traits. In short, poverty hinders self-enlightenment and must be removed in some manner. But who is to assume responsibility for providing Buddhism's Four Requisites of food, clothing, shelter, and medicine? In Buddhism the initial responsibility for satisfying basic human needs, of course, always resides with the individual. In this regard, the work ethic of Buddhism is comparable with that of Protestantism.

 

Yet, Buddhism's recognition of the interrelatedness of all economic activity also places some of the responsibility in the hands of employers and the state. The good Buddhist employer "should serve his employees in five ways: he should assign them work in proportion to their strength; he should give them due food and wages; he should care for them in sickness; he should share especially tasty luxuries with them; and he should give them holidays at due intervals." 19 For the employer to do anything less threatens the quality of life of the employee materially and spiritually, and demonstrates the unenlightened nature of the employer.

 

Buddhism envisions the state's economic responsibilities to be primarily in the area of social security programs that "cause the blind, the sick, the humble, the unprotected, the destitute, and the crippled, all equally to attain food and drink without omission." 20 It seems that a limited version of the modern welfare state is a very old idea. If, however, there existed a widespread failure of employees and/or employers to fulfill their mutual economic-religious obligations, Buddhism would appear to be open to a significant expansion of the state's economic responsibilities on a scale comparable to that proposed by many contemporary social democrats. 21

 

Buddhism's concern for the working poor and those with disabilities should not be taken as a condemnation of the wealthy. It is not the possession of wealth that is to be avoided, but rather being possessed by wealth. A Buddhist society can be wealthy, but a society absorbed in the accumulation of wealth cannot be truly Buddhist. What is critical here is that the wealth was not obtained through any of the proscribed occupations and that excess wealth is used in a manner that is beneficial to others. Voluntary contributions of surplus wealth to maximize the availability of the Four Requisites and other essential public services and public goods is, in fact, expected because it is a natural reflection of the wealthy person's quest for self-enlightenment and the related desire to aid others in their quest.

 

While Buddhism supports economic development on a scale that frees the masses from the struggle for survival, it does not favor economic growth unrestrained by ethical considerations. The bottom line alone, for example, is never sufficient justification for actions that in the short or long run threaten the health of others through the introduction of toxic substances into the environment. Buddhism draws no distinction between pollution of the environment and adding a little rat poison to your boss's coffee each morning. Both acts knowingly threaten the quality of life of another and their potential to achieve self-enlightenment.

 

This concern for maximizing the opportunity of one and all to achieve self-enlightenment, as we have already seen, extends to future generations. Thus, unrestrained use of the earth's resources can amount to depriving the not yet born of the opportunity for self-enlightenment. While the living have the right to a comfortable standard of living, they should not acquire it by stealing it from the next generation. In sum, just as Buddhism calls upon man to treat his fellow man in a nonviolent manner, it calls upon humanity to also treat nature in a nonviolent manner. 22

 

VI. BUDDHISM AND SOCIETY As a negation of Brahmanism, Buddhism rejected the caste system of India. Given the intimate relationship among race, occupation, and caste in early India, Buddhism naturally opposed all socio-political hierarchies based on one's economic class and/or the color of one's skin. As a minority religion, it also opposed discrimination on the basis of one's religious orientation. Less well-known is Buddhism's early rejection of discrimination on the basis of gender. 23

 

The early sutras reconstruct a previous golden era that was devoid of distinctions based on gender. The image of Buddha presented in these sutras is usually androgynous in nature. Even when these images tend to take on a gender-specific character, there is no clear cut inference that one gender is superior to the other. It is especially worth noting that in these early sutras there is, in contrast to Christianity, no association of the devolution of man with the female gender. Therefore, it was quite natural that the early Buddhist religious communities openly welcomed women.