terror-inspiring (trāsanakci); that which involves absence of affection and compassion toward living beings (niṣpipāsa, niṣkaruṇa), etc. [11] In the same work sixty names have been given toahiṁsā, some of which are: nirvāṇa or mokṣa', nirvṛti or healthfulness, śānti or. peace; kīrti or good name; rati or delight; dayā or compassion; kṣānti or forgiveness; rakṣā or the principle of protection; bhadrā or auspiciousness; samyama or self-control, apramāda or absence of laziness; pavitrā or that which sanctifies; vimalā or that which implies absence of impurity, etc. [12] These characterizations of himsā and ahiṁsā respectively manage to bring a large number of vices and virtues under the two concepts. The identification of ahiṁsā with nirvāṇa or mokṣa and such states of conscious-

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ness as sanctity or holiness and purity and auspiciousness, invests that concept with almost a mystical significance.

　　  A similar view hiṁsā is found in the commentaries on the Yoga Sūtras of Patãnjaii. The Tattvāntha Sūtra counts ahimsa (or abstention from hiṁsā among the five vratas;[13] the Yoga Sūtra, too, describes ahiṁsā, trustfulness and some other virtues as mahāvratas to be universally adopted or practiced. The Vyāṣa Bhaṣya remarks that all other rules or virtuous dispositions follow from the injunction or practice of ahiṁsā. Vācaspati Miśra explains this to mean that other rules or vrafas are intended for generating a thorough understanding (or realization) of ahiṁsā. In other words, the one thing worth realizing for one aspiring to attain Yoga is the attitude or the state of ahiṁsā. which consists in complete absence of hostility and in complete harmony, in relation to all the living creatures. The object aimed at by the observance of truthfulness—the second great rule of conduct is, for instance, bringing benefit to living creatures. This implies that truth may not be spoken if the speaking of it is likely to bring harm to living beings.[14]

　　 An exceptionally significant verse expounding ahiṁsā runs as follows:

　　 Along the bank of the great river of pity or compassion lie the different creeds that are comparable to grass, sprouts (plants), etc.; if that river (of compassion) goes dry, how long can the latter prosper?[15]

　　 This verse emphasizes the centrality of compassion in the make-up of the religious person. The Jainas distinguish between aṇuvratas   that are enjoined on the householders and the mahāvratas that are intended to be practiced by the mendicants- The mendicant or muni should strictly observe ahiṁsā in its fivefold form: the idea of doing injury should not even cross his mind; he should be careful in the use of speech; he should take care that no hiṁsā or injury is committed through his movements, through the use of various instruments, and through the intake of foods and drinks.[16]

　　  The teaching of ahimsa in Yoga Sutras as also in Jainism has a religious motivation; the Mahābhārata, on the other hand, is more concerned to define ahiṁsā as an aspect of dharma or righteousness. In one place in the Sānti Parva, a twofold definition of dharma or righteousness has been given.

　　  Dharma is so called because it supports; by dharma are the people (or beings) supported. Verily that alone is dharma which contributes to the support or maintenance of all.

　　  Dharma is preached with a view to ensuring noninjury to living beings: that is dharma which is united with ahiṁsā.[17]

   The second verse occurs, exactly in the same form, in the Karṇa-parva also.[18] Violence in any form leads to disharmony in society, hence, violence is to be totally avoided. The function of righteousness or dharma is to maintain social harmony. Viewed in this light, dharma, consisting in strict adherence to ahimsa, is comparable to justice as conceived in Plato's Republic.

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　　  To the question "Why are people driven to practice hiṁsā or to indulge in violence?" the reply would be: because of their attachment to the self that is sought to be preserved at any cost. It is attachment to the self that is at the root of unrighteous conduct consisting chiefly in doing injustice or violence to others. In fact, injustice itself may be considered to be a form of violence. This line of thought has been clearly presented by some Buddhist writers. In con­formity with the central drift of Indian ethical thought, the Caluhscilaka (of Aryadeva) observes: The Buddhas briefly characterize dharma as consisting in ahiṁsā.[19] .Commenting on this Candrakirti adds: "That which is helpful to others in any measure, is all included within Ahimsa." [20] Since the practice of hiṁsā is due to attachment to the self, such attachment is condemned in the strongest terms. In the Bodhicaryāvatāra of Śantideva we read: