are asserted to be mutually inclusive (Kalupahana, 1986:264-265).
8 (T.30.18b). N2g2rjuna criticized the Abhidharma tenet, saying “Tathagato yat svabhavas tat
svabhavam idam jagat, tathagato nihsvabhavo nihsvabhavam idam jagat (Whatever is the self-nature
of the tath2gata, that is also the self-nature of the universe. The tath2gata is devoid of
self-nature. This universe is also devoid of self nature)” (Kalupahana, 1986:310).
9 Kalupahana considered that the Buddha claimed to know the theory of co-dependent arising
(prat6tyasamutp2da) rather than to accept any notion of “ultimate reality” (param2rthasatya)
(Kalupahana, 1986:331).
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Yog2c2ra criticized M2dhyamika because the M2dhyamika school
over-emphasized $^nyat2. The M2dhyamikan's identification of $^nyat2 and
prat6tyasamutp2da does not provide any logical reasoning of ‘how’ and
‘why’. According to Yog2c2ra, M2dhyamikan's emphasis on $^nyat2 caused
some people to cling to one-side of $^nyat2. The Yog2c2ra school
insisted on citta-m2tra or consciousness-only that all phenomena and
events are of the mind and from the mind. The Yog2c2ra school
described citta-m2tra through the trisvabh2va theory. The transformation
of consciousness makes it possible for sentient beings to become as
enlightened as the Buddha or the bodhisattvas. It seems that Asanga
emphasized the central position of paratantra, which is transformable to
parikalpita or to parini4panna.
N2g2rjuna's dialectical negative approach is believed to lead to the
understanding of the ultimate reality (param2rtha) which is the ineffable
realm. N2g2rjuna's method of the consequent negations is different from
the nihilistic view in refuting the ineffable reality of $^nyat2 through the
negative dialectic method by utilizing the conventional means such as
words.
In Chinese Ch'an Buddhism, Ch'an Buddhist leaders applied
negative expression as the best way to disclose the ultimate reality
which is paradoxically ineffable. Bodhidharma (460?-534?) came to China
from India and introduced Ch'an Buddhism between 520 and 526.
Bodhidharma transmitted the esoteric teaching to Hui-k'o (486-593).
Under the teaching of Hung-yen (605-675), the fifth patriarch, Shen-hsiu
(?605- 706) and Hui-neng (638-713) were the prominent disciples. Later,
Ch'an Buddhism was developed into two different schools in the early
eighth century: Northern School by Shen-hsiu and Southern School by
Hui-neng.
Shen-hsiu of Northern School was highly respected and was
regarded as ‘the Lord of the Law’ in Chinese Buddhism. The Empress
Wu (r.684-705) invited him to her palace in 700 when he was 90 years
old. Shen-hsiu left his famous poem based on the Yog2c2ra tradition of
Ch'an Buddhism.
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The body is like unto the Bodhi-tree,
And the mind to a mirror bright;
Carefully we cleanse them hour by hour
Lest dust should fall upon them (Fung, 1959:256).
Shen-hsiu emphasized the Universal Mind or Buddha Nature
spoken by Tao-sheng and constant practice for the gradual
enlightenment by following the main ideas in the La!k2vat2ra-s^tra.10
On the other hand, Hui-neng utilized negative expression to
explain the Buddha-nature paradoxically. Hui-neng was originally an
illiterate fuel-wood peddler, and his basic teachings are recorded in the
Liu-tsu t'an-ching (Platform Scripture of the Sixth Patriarch). According
to the Liu-tsu t'an-ching, Hui-neng composed his poem against
Shen-hsiu's affirmative illustration of Buddha Mind.
Originally there was no Bodhi-tree,
Nor was there any mirror;
Since originally there was nothing,
Whereon can the dust fall? (Fung, 1959:256)
In his poem, Hui-neng emphasized the Wu (無; Non-being) of
Seng-chao and refuted the gradual enlightenment by emphasizing the
Sudden enlightenment. Fung Yu-Lan notices that Shen-hsiu expressed
the idea that “The very mind is Buddha”; but Hui-neng expressed
“not-mind, and not-Buddha” (Fung, 1959:257). As Fung points out, the
first principle of Ch'an Buddhism is “inexpressible” by emphasizing the
term Wu (nothingness or non-being).
V. Conclusion
Symbolic and metaphoric illustration accepts some validity of
words or symbolic drawings to explain a certain reality, i.e., Truth,
sacredness, and others. Buddhist and Hinduist mantras are considered as
10 The full name of the La!k2vat2ra-s^tra (Skt.) is called Saddharma-La!k2vat2ra-s^tra (Lancaster,
1979:69-70). Hodgson discovered the Sanskrit La!k2vat2ra-s^tra manuscript in Nepal (Bunyu,
1923; Suzuki, 1932:1956).
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some ways to express the ultimate reality. Also, various ma!3alas are
considered to visualize the ineffable reality. On the other hand, the
negative approach rejects any validity of words or visualizations because
of its limited function to elaborate or express the ineffable reality. The