characterizes the major sects prior to the emergence
　　   of the Ch'an schools.  The evidence  indicates  that
　　   all the schools  which  were carried  from China  to
　　   Japan  prior to the great persecution  contained  an
　　   esoteric  element (including  Tenda i, the source of
　　   all the "popular" Buddhist movements in Japan).
　　　　   If  we  acknowledge   that  the  Ch'an  schools
　　   preserve  an  esoteric  form  of Mahayana  Buddhism,
　　   based on the practice of seated meditation, then the
　　   Ch'an  traditions  do not  falsify  the  history  of
　　   Buddhism in China, except in the sense that emphasis
　　   on seated  meditation  and the direct experience  of
　　   enlightenment must be understood as a perspective on
　　   Chinese Buddhism  as a whole, rather that as a basis
　　   for sectarian separatism.
　　　　   At its best, Ch'an has never been sectarian in
　　   spirit.  Perhaps this revisionist perspective on its
　　   early  history  may serve to reawaken  its reforming
　　   spirit for our age.
　　   ────────────
　　   NOTES
　　   (1) This famous  four-line  stanza is attributed  to
　　　　  Bodhidharma, but  was actually  formulated  much
　　　　  later;  according  to  Suzuki  [ Essays  in  Zen
　　　　  Buddhism, vol.I,(London, 1933;  new  eds., 1950,
　　　　  1958), p.176], the verses  can be traced back no
　　　　  further than Nan-ch'uan P'u-yuan, a Ch'an master
　　　　  of the
 
 
　　　　　　　　　　　　  P.398
 
　　　　  T'ang era (traditional dates, 748~834).
　　   (2) A.History of Zen Buddhism (1969), p.69.
　　   (3) Cf.  Dumoulin, Wu-men  Kuan: Der Pass  ohne  Tor
　　　　  (Monumenta Nipponica Monograph No. 13; G, Tokyo,
　　　　  1953), p.171ff. I have been unable to trace this
　　　　  Kasyapa  legend  to sources  outside  the  Ch'an
　　　　  tradition,  but  I  suspect  that  it  would  be
　　　　  characteristic  of esoteric Buddhism  in general
　　　　  to preserve such a story.
　　   (4) Earliest  information  about Hui-k'o is found in
　　　　  T'ang Dynasty sources;  cf.  Ching-Chueh  (ed.),
　　　　  Leng-ch'ieh  shih-chih  chi, in Ta chwun  tsang,
　　　　  vol.  51, pp.1284-86; Tu Fei, Ch'uan-fa pao-chi,
　　　　  op, cit., p.1291.
　　   (5) Cf.Ching -chu  (ed.), Leng-ch'ieh  shih chi, op.
　　　　  cit  p.1286;  other sources  appear to depend on