论性不论气不备,论气不论性不明。盖本然之性只是至善,然不以气质而论之,则莫知其有昏明、开塞、刚柔、强弱,故有所不备。徒论气质之性,而不但本原言之,则虽知有昏明开塞刚柔强弱之不同,而不知至善之源未尝有异,故其论有所不明,……孟子于性善,则有些是论性不论气。(同上)
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此外,朱熹又将孟子的四端善性解释成:「所谓四端者,皆情也。仁是性,恻隐是情。」(语类卷59)将孟子的「才」解释成:「才本是善,但为气所染,故有善不善。」(同上)
由上分析可知,伊川和朱子是以主、客体兼具来论儒家伦理,而异于孟、陆、王纯以主体来论之。
(五)、陆、王
将陆象山、王阳明置于一起来讨论,乃是此二人之立论直承于孟子之心学而来。对陆象山来说,心即是理,本心乃是一切实践之立论基础,如其云:
仁,人心也。心之在人,是人之所以为人,而与禽兽草木异焉者也。(拾遗.学问求放心)
格物者,格此(心)者。(语录)
学者须是打迭田地净洁,然后令他奋发植立。若因地不净洁,则奋发植立不得,……因地不净洁亦读书不得。(语录)
学苟知本,六经皆我脚注。(语录)
王阳明的修学历程,是依朱熹格物穷理的方法,「格竹子七日,劳神成疾」,而后「在夷中三年,乃知天下之物,本无可格者,其格物之功,只在身心上做。」(传习录)所以,阳明认为格物在于格心,而非指格事事物物,能尽此心,即是格物,故对朱熹之格物加以批评之,如其云:
格物是止至善之功,既知至善,即知格物矣。……朱子格物之训,未免牵合附会,非其本旨。(传习录)
阳明除了批判朱子外,还将自己的主张与孟子结合起来,如其云:
格物如孟子大人格君心之格,是去其心之不正,以全其本体之正。但意念所在,即要去其不正,以全其正。即无时无处不是存天理,即是穷理。天理即是明德,穷理即是明明德。(同上)
由此可知,阳明和象山、孟子一样,皆是以主体来立儒家伦理。不只如此,阳明甚至说:「人的良知就是草木瓦石。岂为草木瓦石为然,天地无人的良知,亦不可为天地矣。」(传习录)至此,儒家伦理的主体性可说发挥至极。
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(六)、小结
经由上述之探讨,可得知儒家伦理之立论基础,在早期主客体并未有绝然之区分,至孔子时,亦是如此。而将德性主体明确彻底彰显出来的,乃是孟子。至宋明理学,延续孟子德性主体立论的,即是陆象山与王阳明。而伊川、朱熹之立论,乃主客体兼之。
四、结论
大乘菩萨道与儒家伦理之立论基础,其最大不同,可说在于无自性与自性之差别。大乘菩萨道之立论基础,基本上在于「无自性」,至于佛教诸经论或他宗他派能否把握此,或偏重有所不同,但基本上皆立基于无自性,以无自性作为出发点。不仅中观强调于此,在唯识或如来藏也都认为诸法无自性。儒家伦理之立论基础,不论是倾向主体或客体或主客兼之的立论,其本身皆基于自性而来。
无论是大乘菩萨道或儒家伦理,其皆兼具自利和利他,如大乘菩萨透过慈悲智慧以成佛,儒家透过内圣外王以成圣。彼此立论基础虽有所不同,但本无优劣可言。
然而在牟宗三对儒佛的分判下,认为只有儒家的德性主体才具有创生,佛教圆教并无创生。[45][45] 若就此而论,儒家之德性主体之生是有碍生的,因为若言德性主体才能生,在究竟义上就不准许其它缘起有之生。所以,德性主体之生,是有碍生的。反观佛教之缘起,显示所有的立论皆基于不同因缘而来,在不同的因缘下而成立,如此各各立论皆能生,反而不碍生,且是生生不息的。
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The Mahayana Bodhisattva Path and Confucian Ethics
Chen Ying-shan
Associate Researcher,
Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies
Summary
This article explores the foundations of the Mahayana bodhisattva path and of Confucian ethics. Both of these approaches contain the potential for innovation. In modern scholarship this innovation has found expression in the "Buddhist Third Way" (san-hsi-shuo) ──exemplified by Yin-shun──, and the "Confucian Third Way"─exemplified by Mou Tsung-san. Both approaches have established standards that entail critiques of the other two "Ways" or “systems”. This article does not take this approach, exploring instead problems that may exist in all three systems.
In this essay I argue that the three doctrines that form the basis of the Mahayana bodhisattva path in Indian Buddhism──the emptiness of nature (Skt. prakrtiviwuddhi), alaya-vijbana, and tathagatagarbha ── are all founded on certain assumptions. Even the notion of the "empiness of nature", generally considered more in keeping with Buddhist ideas of dependent origination, entails the reification of emptiness (k'ung tzu-hsing-hua). Similarly, while the "Third Way" of Confucianism accepts as orthodox Confucius, Mencius, Lu Chiu-yuan and Wang Yang-ming, while rejecting Chu Hsi, its dependence on “innate virtue" (te-hsing) creates a number of problems.
This article traces the historical progression of these intellectual developments, first clarifying their theoretical underpinnings and then subjecting them to analysis. With respect to the theoretical foundations of the Mahayana bodhisattva path, I begin with a discussion of the Scripture of the Ten Stages (Skt. Dawabhumika-sutra), and then expore the theoretical foundations of the bodhisattva path in Madhyamika, Yogacara, Tathagatagarbha, T'en-t'ai and Hua-yen thought. With respect to Confucian ethics, I first discuss the Shang shu and Book of Poetry before proceding to explore the theoretical foundations of the thought of Confucius, Mencius, the Ch’eng-Chu School, Lu Chiu-yuan and Wang Yang-ming.