formulable   or  conceptually   graspable,  and  the
　　   pragmatic  test of validity provides a criterion for
　　   truth.   James   and   Yogaacaara   both   developed
　　   philosophies  that emphasize the encompassing nature
　　   of   consciousness　　 without   becoming   monistic,
　　   metaphysically  idealistic, or atomistic.  For  both
　　   James and Yogaacaara, the pragmatic test of validity
　　   accomplishes a dual philosophical  aim.  It prevents
　　   the absolute  reification  of any  given  conceptual
　　   construct  and at the same time  prevents  a totally
　　   deconstructive  or nihilistic  denial of meaning and
　　   truth.

　　　　　　　　　　　　  P.241

　　　　  These similar  philosophical  systems  arose  in
　　   different  cultural contexts in response to entirely
　　   different  intellectual  milieux.  James was working
　　   within  the  empirical  tradition  of  Bacon, Locke,
　　   Berkeley, and Hume.  He protested the subjectivistic
　　   idealism  of Humean  and  Berkelian  empiricism  and
　　   sought to overcome  the epistemological  dualism  of
　　   Descartes  and  Kant.  Yogaacaara  was  heir  to the
　　   radical  via  negativa   of  the  Praj~naapaaramitaa
　　   literature  and sought  a mediating  epistemological
　　   alternative to Madhyamaka's  two-truth theory, which
　　   seemed to accord  truth to the nonconceptual  sphere
　　   of ultimacy  (paramaarthasat) and leave little basis
　　   for  distinguishing   between   valid   and  invalid
　　   conventional　　 (vyavahaara)   verbal   and   mental
　　   constructs.

　　　　  Each philosophy  exerted tremendous influence in
　　   its own hemisphere.  William James' thought left its
　　   mark  in the  fields  of psychology  and comparative
　　   religion.  His philosophy contributed to the rise of
　　   modern  pragmatism, possibly  influenced  Husserlian
　　   phenomenology,(81) and currently provides a resource
　　   for the pragmaticization of analytic philosophy.(82)
　　   In the religious  sphere, James' ideas provided  one
　　   of the inspirational  forces behind the evolving New
　　   Thought movement and even Alcoholics  Anonymous.  In
　　   the   Eastern   hemisphere,   Yogaacaara　　 modified
　　   Madhyamaka  philosophy  over centuries of debate and
　　   permeated T'ien-t'ai and Ch'an formulations in China
　　   and Tendai and Zen in Japan. The influences of James
　　   and Yogaacaara  then converged  in the modern  Kyoto
　　   school of philosophy.  Judging  from the breadth  of